Which Law School Courses Should I Take

If you are a first-year student, your law school courses have probably been laid out for you, and this a good thing because the basics like Contracts, Constitutional Law, Criminal Law, Torts, Property, and Civil Procedure will lay the foundation for the rest of your law school career. One or more of these courses may appeal to you so much that you decide right then and there that you simply must take every related course over the next two years. When it’s time for registration, here are three pieces of advice on selecting your law school courses: Forget About the Bar Exam You will hear a lot of people, including advisors and professors, tell you to take the â€Å"bar courses,† i.e., those subjects that are covered on most, if not all, state bar exams. I agree with that—so long as you have an underlying interest in, say, business associations or contract remedies. Most â€Å"bar courses† are included in your first-year requirements anyway; for those subjects that aren’t covered, you will learn what you need to know for the bar exam from bar review materials and classes. This probably sounds strange, but it’s true: you will learn all the law you need to know for the bar exam in the two months preceding it. The best thing to do is to forget about the bar now while you’re in school and follow the next two pieces of advice in choosing your second and third-year courses and clinics. Select Topics That Interest You You may never have an opportunity to study certain subjects again, so if you’ve always wanted to learn more about white-collar and organized crime, have at it. If you have an underlying interest in environmental law, even if you don’t think you’ll make a career out of it, why not give the course a try? Literature and the law? No, it’s not on the bar exam, but you might enjoy it. If the courses you select are making you think and analyze (and all courses in law school will), they are preparing you for the bar exam and for a promising legal career. Two other potential bonuses: You just might get higher grades because you’re engaged in the course material, which will be looked upon kindly by future employers.You may even find yourself a new, exciting career path. Choose Great Professors Professors’ reputations are generally well-known in their schools, so seek out those â€Å"can’t miss† instructors, even if they’re teaching classes you otherwise wouldn’t be interested in. This goes slightly against the tip above, but if generations of law students have raved about a particular professor, you probably want to take a class with that professor no matter what it is. Great professors can make even the dullest subjects interesting and get you excited to go to class. Some of my favorite classes (and, incidentally, the ones I did the best in) were Property, Taxation, and Estate and Gift Tax. Because of the subject matter? Hardly. Remember that this is your law school education—not your advisor’s, not your professors’, and certainly not your parents’. You’ll never get these three years back, so make sure that you make the most out of your law school experience, something that begins with choosing the right classes for you. With careful course selection, you can enjoy three years that are not only intellectually stimulating and challenging but also fun. Choose wisely!

Johnson Ware A Military And Security Apparel Company...

WeaveTech, formally known as Johnson-Ware is a military and security apparel company entering into the high-end performance clothing market. Before the acquisition by CVX Partners, WeaveTech which was formed in 1905, relied exclusively on the military (70%) and security (30%) customer base. The need to change the company’s customer base from military and security to high-end performance clothing market apparently arose from the allure of the later market segment and the dwindling growth of the military and security market (Beer Swiercz, 2015). The departure of Jack Davidson, a retired US Navy Rear Admiral, and WeaveTech CEO from 1983 to 2012 in addition to the conclusion of the Afghanistan and Iraq Wars meant that the traditional market was losing its reliability. Due to the unreliability, there was a need to redesign the customer base and to take advantage of the high-end market segment. Strategic Content Certain factors need to be considered when developing a strategic workforce plan. These factors include; business metrics, workforce plan, organizational operations and the relevant federal laws and regulations (Ruth Mayhew, 2014). WeaveTech’s business metrics includes sales, profitability, production statistics, and the retention of employees. Increasing sales, in turn, will enhance profitability. In order to increase sales, understanding the cost per unit will improve production statistics. With the implementation of Total Quality Management and Performance BasedShow MoreRelatedMarketing Mistakes and Successes175322 Words   |  702 PagesPUBLISHER EXECUTIVE EDITOR ASSISTANT EDITOR PRODUCTION MANAGER PRODUCTION ASSISTANT EXECUTIVE MARKETING MANAGER ASSISTANT MARKETING MANAGER MARKETING ASSISTANT DESIGN DIRECTOR SENIOR DESIGNER SENIOR MEDIA EDITOR George Hoffman Lise Johnson Carissa Doshi Dorothy Sinclair Matt Winslow Amy Scholz Carly DeCandia Alana Filipovich Jeof Vita Arthur Medina Allison Morris This book was set in 10/12 New Caledonia by Aptara ®, Inc. and printed and bound by Courier/Westford. The coverRead MoreBrand Building Blocks96400 Words   |  386 Pagesdirectly affects the motivation to build brands. The second reason, the proliferation of competitors, reduces the positioning options available and makes implementation less effective. The third and fourth reasons, the fragmentation in media and markets and the involvement of multiple brands and products, describe the context of building brands today, a context that involves a growing level of complexity. The remaining reasons reflect internal pressures that inhibit brand building. The fifth

Current Emerging Technologies Free Essays

Essay Question 1: What will the market be for automated highway systems and when will it emerge? Essay Answer 1: The highway system is mainly used for the purpose is to control the vehicular traffic on roads it is mainly connected between the two towns the traffic flow is separated by the median the traffic is flow in the opposite direction there is a lane marking, to avoid the traffic it is one of the ways to reach the destination like one city to another city, that means it is the connection between two cities (Alfred, 2010). Now a day’s everything is becoming automatically, on the high ways there is no need o reduce the speed of the vehicles. There are so many systems which are become automatic so the sensors are used to know the speed of the vehicles on the highway there is no median breakage in the medial of the highway, only there is a connection to take U-turn at the end and starting of the highway, this high way is connected to the normal roads to enter into the cities (Robert, 2000) on the high way the traffic flow is very high if the person wants to reduce a speed of their vehicles they have to intimate to the other people then they can go side and after completion of the work again they can join into that traffic flow. We will write a custom essay sample on Current Emerging Technologies or any similar topic only for you Order Now Essay Question 2: What are the challenges of emerging markets? Essay Answer 2: The most of the organizations are worked on the emerging technologies to develop that, the technologies are developed by the customer’s requirements, the management is very careful while developing any new technologies the organization doesn’t develop all the technologies which is needed by customers (Robert, 2000) they can start developing the new emerging the technologies only based on the present market, if the cost of that technologies is less with more need of that software then only the customers are attracted to know about that technologies. To advertise that technology to the people and launched in the present a market is the biggest challenge for the organization people, they can effort more work to advertise about the technologies once the customers are known about the technologies then it is easy to know about the software to the customers (Alfred, 2010) there are so many challenges for new emerging technologies are present facing on the market, the market situation is doesn’t same at all the time it is also based on the need of the customers and clients. References Wharton Managing Emerging Technologies. Edited by: George S. Day, Paul J. H. Schoemaker and Robert E. Gunther. John W Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2000. ISBN 0-471-36121-6. The Future of Technology Management and the Business Environment: Lessons on Innovation, Disruption, and Strategy Execution, Author: Alfred A. Marcus 1st Edition, 2010. ISBN: 10:0133996131. How to cite Current Emerging Technologies, Papers

Power of Karma Yoga in Human Development †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Power of Karma Yoga in Human Development. Answer: Introduction: Karma is said to be the law of cause and effect whereby the life of a person is believed to be shaped by the past actions and the future is said to be determined by the actions of today. Generally, if a person sows bad habits or actions, he or she will pay it by living a suffering life while if he or she sows goodness, he or she will reap goodness by living a joyful life (Verhaeghen, 2015). Therefore, the suffering of human beings is religiously believed to be a cause of their own actions and ignorance and not as Gods punishment. It is difficult to change karma although it can be done through much prayers and repentance to God. Nonetheless, the human beings must pay for their evil deeds. This paper features the concept of karma in Krishna and Buddha. The Buddhist doctrine believes that the world is developed by the actions of the people in it. In Buddhism, karma is termed as an action which is directed by ones intention leading to future consequences management. The intentions are said to be the influential factors in the rebirth cycle. Although Buddha did not encourage the belief in God, karma is believed to symbolize the animation of God. The nature of rebirth is determined by our thoughts, actions, and intentions which bring forth some consequences which shape our lives. According to Buddha, karma reputed the animation of a supreme being whose powers ensures that everybody reaps what he or she sows and that no-one can escape the consequences of their doings. Although some actions may not bear fruits in ones life, they are believed to do so in the life to come. However, there must be some representations of ones life caused by their actions. Buddha believes that for the goodness of a person to be evidenced, the good must take a n absolute form. Since it is said that goodness can be taken to its highest position or rather the greatest good, it is advisable that people strive and make efforts to remain good people by doing their best they can. This is why Buddha claims to lead the followers to the highest goodness. While the concept of karma ties us to rebirth in samsara due to our intentional actions, Buddha leads us the way out of samsara. According to the Buddhists, the law of karma operates in a complex manner whereby although the past actions have got an influence on the present life, the present actions still affect the present life and also shape the future life (Rastogi, Ashish, Surya, 2015). Since our thoughts and attitudes shape the life, karma can be changed by changing the minds. Buddha argues that besides karma, some other factors may shape our lives such as natural calamities. For instance, an earthquake may not necessarily mean karmic punishment but rather an ill-fated incident which calls for a kindhearted response. Lord Krishna argues that one should create oneness with eternity and perform good actions through the force of nature. According to Lord Krishna, karma can be a causal factor in the present life and the life after, but various other factors also shape the life. He argues that one should pursue good actions without ceasing and do it as a divine offering even after attaining perfection for the goodness of the entire world. He gave an example of Janaka who continued performing good actions even after realizing God. Sri Krishna argues that no matter how much we strive to do good or bad, we can never be sure of the results. This is because there always exists some variables which interfere with our actions hence producing unexpected results. He argues that our actions are not directly proportional to the results thereof, hence the results can be a mixture of good and bad actions. Therefore, it is not wise to judge a person emotionally based on the results of some actions. However, this do es not mean that we fail to cogitate our thoughts before acting based on the assumption that the karmas results are random. He encourages everyone to act in a way that the desire is to attain favorable results since karma is still in place. This means that one should do their activities in a positive spirit of duty without the expressive connection of the karma law (Brown, 2014). He discourages laziness and ignorant and says that people should plan their likes and desires regardless of the failure of karma to cause the expected results. He thus encourages people to perform swadharma which means doing all the things positively as an offering to the Lord and embracing all the results as blessings without complaints. Generally, karma is believed to be a law of nature which implies that people reap what they sow and that they cannot escape the punishment of their wrong-doings and that those who act in a good manner enjoy a blessed life. Buddha argues that for goodness to earn value, it must be of the highest quality and that alongside karma, natural factors can also shape our lives (Abraham, 2017). Lord Krishna argues that the law of karma is not directly related to our actions. Good actions may yield bad results and vice versa. However, he encourages people to be always on the positive side and act as offering to God and if bad results happen, they also accept them with thankfulness. Work Cited Abraham, Licyamma. "Hinduism and Its Symbols." (2017). Print. Keown, Damien.The nature of Buddhist ethics management. Springer, 2016. Print Verhaeghen, Paul. "Good and Well: The Case for Secular Buddhist Ethics."Contemporary Buddhism16.1 (2015): 43-54. Print. Hanson, Virginia, Shirley Nicholson, and Rosemarie Stewart, eds.Karma: Rhythmic Return to Harmony. Quest Books, 2014. Print. Kalra, Bharti, et al. "Transgenerational karma."Indian journal of endocrinology and metabolism21.2 (2017): 265. Print Brown, Shelley. "The power of karma yoga in human development."International Journal of Development Issues13.3 (2014): 242-249. Print Rastogi, Ashish, and Surya Prakash Pati. "Towards a conceptualization of Karma Yoga." (2015): 51-63. Print Muniapan, Balakrishnan, and Biswajit Satpathy. "The Dharmaand Karmaof CSR from the Bhagavad-Gita."Journal of Human Values19.2 (2013): 173-187. Print

Life After Death - Robert Frost And Emily Dickinson Essays

Life After Death - Robert Frost And Emily Dickinson Life After Death Robert Frost and Emily Dickinson are two Modern American Poets who consistently wrote about the theme of death. While there are some comparisons between the two poets, when it comes to death as a theme, their writing styles were quite different. Robert Frost's poem, ?Home Burial,? and Emily Dickinson's poems, ?I felt a Funeral in my Brain,? and ?I died for Beauty,? are three poems concerning death. While the theme is constant there are differences as well as similarities between the poets and their poems. The obvious comparison between the three poems is the theme of death. Both poets, in these works and many others, display a fascination with the death of themselves as well as the death of peers, and loved ones. Both Frost and Dickinson experienced a great deal of death throughout each of their lives. Frost's greatest loss was the death of his son, which is greatly depicted in his poem ?Home Burial.? Dickinson suffered the loss of many friends and family. She spent a lot of her time in her room looking out upon the headstones of these people. The only strong comparison between the poets, in terms of structure and technique, is that the meaning of their poems run much deeper then the specific words on a page. Even this can come as a contrast when looking at these three poems. ?Home Burial,? by Frost is a fairly straightforward poem, written in dialogue, with the writer working as the narrator. The poem is about a married couple dealing with the recent death of their son, who the husband had to bury in their own backyard. It is a considerably long poem, which doesn't require one to read between the lines. Where as ?I felt a Funeral in my Brain,? and ?I died for Beauty,? by Dickinson are considerably short poems, in which she seals as much as she reveals. Emily Dickinson's poetry was not that of any traditional style. She was criticized for capitalizing words in the middle of sentences, using inexact rhymes and only giving a partial understanding. She loved to use ellipses, in order to let the reader finish a thought. Many of these were actually eliminated in many of her first publications, which were never published until after her death. In the two poems, ?I felt a Funeral in my Brain,? and ?I died for Beauty? all of these characteristics are present, including her usual four line stanzas in the meter of traditional hymns. Written in first person, ?I felt a Funeral in my Brain? is about the thought of her own funeral. Imagining what is would be like in the coffin, where only the sense of sound is present. The last word of the poem is then-?, a classic example of an ellipse, where the reader is left to finish the poem on their own. ?I died for Beauty also ends with an ellipse. The poem is about two dead people, herself and another ma n, resting side by side, buried underground. Like ?Home Burial,? by Frost, this was written in dialogue with the writer as the narrator. One died for Beauty and one for truth. Although it seemed as though they died for an important cause, with time their names will be forgotten. Unlike Dickinson, Robert Frost wrote in a traditional style. ?Home Burial,? like many of his poems, was written in iambic pentameter, giving five beats per line. Using iambic pentameter gives the poem a monotone, rhythmic feel. Because the poem reads very rhythmically, the seriousness of the poem is exaggerated. This dramatically differs from the two poems by Dickinson. Emily Dickinson's poems, though just as serious, come across quite a bit lighter then ?Home Burial.? The structure of her poems gives a riddle-like effect. The difference in length between the poems changes the mood as well. In Frost's poem the thought of death is drawn out simply by the length of the poem, where as the abruptness of Dickinson's poems give a much lighter feel. Another difference between Robert Frost and Emily Dickinson's poems is the perspective taken by the poet. In ?Home Burial? there is mourning over the loss of a son.

Atomic Bomb Design essays

Atomic Bomb Design essays By 1939 nuclear scientists had begun to delve seriously into the fission of uranium atoms causing a chain reaction, particularly in the U235 isotope. As a result, vast progress was made in the fields of neutron bombardment, the comparative efforts of slow neutrons versus fast neutrons in sustaining chain reactions, and the possible methods of separating U235 from U238 in natural uranium. Moreover, the possibility of an immense atomic explosion was becoming common knowledge, and calculations for a "critical mass" were just around the corner. As early as the spring of 1942, scientists and leaders across the United States were being exposed to plutonium, courtesy of Glen Seaborgs neutron bombardment of U238. With two unique isotopes of fissionable material at the disposal of the countrys greatest minds, it was fitting that two unique atomic weapon designs emerged. The gun bomb focused around driving together two sub-critical masses, and the implosion bomb relied on a uniform shockwave t o compress a plutonium center. Although both designs created the desired bang, they contained very unique features and lent themselves to plutonium and uranium in different ways. The primary research and design center for the bombs was the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory in New Mexico. The designing of the bombs stemmed from a nuclear chain-reaction that is normally started by an initiator. The initiator injects a burst of neutrons into the fissile core at an appropriate moment (Elbert). The timing of the initiation of the chain reaction is important and must be carefully designed for the weapon to have a predictable yield. A neutron generator emits a burst of neutrons to initiate the chain reaction at the proper moment: near the point of maximum compression in an implosion design or at the complete assembly point in the gun design. A tamper is placed around the given nuclear material and acts a...

Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Project - Essay Example The training will therefore emphasize on professional interviewing procedures for effective evaluation of prospective candidates. The second section of the training will be performance management. This will emphasize the essence of having company goals and objectives that are articulating and achievable. For these to be achieved, they have to be well planned by the management, executed, monitored, analyzed and evaluated after a period of time. Thirdly, the training will discuss the role of legal compliance in company management. This is essential in observing operational regulations and nurturing a good public image. It will be brought to the attention of all trainees that government directives have to be adhered to by the company, a process that starts with the management before junior employees are involved. Fourthly, the training will cover employee motivation, a concept that entails rewards and good remuneration of employees based on their successes and achievements. This can be done through talent recognition and performance evaluation (Mathis and Jackson 111). Lastly, the training will cover financial management as a management section. This segment is key in monitoring the financial base and performance of accompany. Through this, it is possible to tell the viability and future of company. These sections however form a skeleton of the demanding task of

Will special programs for reconvicts reduce recidivism Essay

Will special programs for reconvicts reduce recidivism - Essay Example The study will focus on the area covered by the Metropolitan Police force and the State of Colorado in the U. S. A. it will compare and contrast the statistics relevant to the study. The convicts who have been reconvicted and those who have not been will also be compared and contrasted to study whether there is a class of persons more likely to reoffend than others. The histories of both the classes of convicts will be studied to determine the necessary steps to be taken for the prevention of recidivism. The results of this study will be utilized to identify the most representative of reconvicts will be formed. Experimental groups of the classes will be identified. The experimental groups will be given correctional lectures, incentives for good behavior including the shortening of the period of notification and a role in social aid for police forces (volunteering for traffic police duties etc.) apart from psychotherapy and counseling. Persons in each group will be selected randomly. The study will be done with the aid of secondary data in the form of the records maintained in the form of Violent and Sexual Crimes Register, Offenders Index and the National Police Register in the United Kingdom and the similar records in the U. S. A.

"United States of Secrets" Or "Long distance Essay

"United States of Secrets" Or "Long distance revolutionary" - Essay Example The public views Mumia Abu-Jamal as a political prisoner as well as a victim of the unethical and unjust American judicial system. The African-American community affirms their long-held belief of Mumia’s innocence in his case associated with the murder of a police officer through the film. Therefore, the film received positive reception from the public, as they believe that the protagonist was a revolutionary who stood for the rights of individuals in the American society. He is thus considered a role model for the society as citizens see him as an incarcerated journalist who represents an international symbol of the product of injustice and nature of capital punishment. The documentary delivers a compelling case of innocence of the murder crime that Abu-Jamal is accused of. Therefore, the story represents the struggles that typify individuals, especially the African-American community, on issues apparent in the judicial system such as lack of substantial evidence to incarcera te a person, evidence tampering, and the withhold of exculpatory facts. I believe that the film Long Distance Revolutionary is an influential political documentary and indictment of the hypocrisy and injustice apparent in the American society. The documentary focuses on controversial issues of injustice and institutional racism that is apparent in numerous institutions such as the judicial system. The documentary focuses on a former Philadelphia Association of Black Journalists’ president and National Public Radio Reporter, who is widely recognized for his unwavering ability to compose publications such as books and articles within the confines of a prison. However, despite his international reputation, many people do not have the understanding about Mumia’s personality, his struggles, and his evolving worldviews. Therefore, the documentary offers an

Writing Culture: the Poetics and Politics of Ethnography

Writing Culture: the Poetics and Politics of Ethnography Introduction During the 25 years since the publication of Writing Culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography, a great deal of discussion has accompanied it. In this essay I place this book in the context of the literary turn in anthropology, and concern with the postcolonial encounter as well. Throughout the analysis of the main themes in the book, attention is paid to the construction of ethnographic authority and two relationships of ethnographer/reader and ethnographer/informant centered in Writing Culture. The essay also provides a perspective of the influential power of the book by presenting some ethnographies conducted by Chinese anthropologists. Finally, I will argue the risks of the textualism trend and different patterns in Writing Culture approach. Background of the Book: In and Beyond Anthropology More than ten years after the publication of Writing Culture, in a review article, George Marcus (1998:5) quoted Schneiders words referring to the book: I dont think Jim Clifford is famous for his monograph on Leenhardt. I dont think that George Marcus has achieved some notoriety because he worked on Tonga. Indeed, I dont know anybody whos read the ethnography he wrote. In fact, Ive often talked to people and asked them, Hay, have you read George Marcuss ethnography? No!-but I read that other damn book. It is a very typical and interesting comment. As an anthropologist, George Marcus is best remembered for editing the collection of essays rather than his own ethnographic work; and similarly, James Clifford, a historian, is frequently regarded as an anthropologist by force of being the editor of the same book. The comment also reveals that the book is controversial, and it has witnessed harshly criticism after its appearance. However, there is no denying that Writing Culture is one of the most important books throughout the history of anthropology-the milestone of the post-modern era and the cornerstone of the experimental ethnography (Gao 2007, Scholte 1987). 1. The literary turn There is nothing outside the text. (Derrida) The book, with eleven essays in it (including the introduction and afterword), is based on a series of seminars at the School of American Research in Santa Fe, New Mexico, the United States of America in April 1984(Clifford and Marcus 1985). By taking the making of ethnographic text (Clifford and Marcus 1986:vii) as the focal point of their seminars, the participants not only viewed WRITING as a elementary method, but also the central issue of social cultural anthropology. Ethnographic writing is then critically examined in aspects of social context, the use of rhetoric devises, the limitations of disciplinary traditions, the definition of its genre, the political engagement, and historical transformations.[1] Why is writing becoming a principle thing in anthropology? In order to answer this question, inevitably, we take into consideration the literary turn, or say textualism trend in anthropology in the 1980s. The literary turn, just as its name implies, by taking text, writing and literary devices as key concepts and employing textual and literary analyses, is a radical shift which provides strikingly different epistemological and methodological approaches in the discipline of anthropology (Scholte 1987). Although it is difficult to figure out whether Writing Culture is more a cause or a result of the literary turn, the book is definitely a key ingredient of it. I would further suggest that Levi-Strauss, Geertz and Writing Culture should be considered as a sequence in the context of the literary turn. What the Writing Culture authors claim, such as the diversity of representations, possibilities of interpretations, at a glance, are totally different from Levi-Strausss pure unity, reduced models and deep culture grammar. At the same time, Levi-Strausss strong sense of symbol and meaning within a symbolic language system and his linguistic analogy approach (Barrett 1996) are valuable legacies to Geertz and Writing Culture. Furthermore, his research on mythology threw fresh light on the interdisciplinary studies across anthropology and literature. Then, Geertz, who is profoundly influenced by Levi-Strauss and Weber, has a more important and complex influence on Writing Culture. Firstly, his concern of anthropological interpretations and thick descriptions, fieldwork and post fieldwork, (Geertz 19751983) provided the basis for Writing Culture explorations. Secondly, Geertzs local knowledge, natives point of view (Geertz 19751983) and assertion of an amiable and intelligible style insp ired Writing Culture authors to portray fieldwork as a dialogical approach, and consequently take the interactions of ethnographers/the indigenous people (Barrett 1996) and ethnographers/readers in to account. Thirdly, Geertzs ethnographies became important materials of Writing Culture 2. Postcolonial encounter and Cultural Representation I used to rule the world Seas would rise when I gave the word Now in the morning I sweep alone Sweep the streets I used to own One minute I held the key Next the walls were closed on me And I discovered that my castles stand Upon pillars of salt and pillars of sand Lyrics of Viva la Vida (Coldplay 2009) The birth of this book is not narrowly concerned with the inheritance and development of theory and methodology within the discipline, but rather deeply rooted in the historical background and the reconstruction among the entire academic community. As an academic discipline, anthropology is developed in the context of imperialism and colonialism. The long-time contact between European conquerors and the colonists shaped forms of power and knowledge, and anthropologists at that time entered into non-European aboriginal communities as observers and describers (Asad 2002). Anthropology narrated power relations; at the same time it was also potentially counter-hegemonic (Clifford 1986:9). In 1980s, which was the postcolonial and postwar era without the umbrella of the colonial power, anthropology started to face a more complex nexus of power relations. The postcolonial situation affected the main interests of anthropology and challenged the authority of ethnography. Moreover, anthropology from then on, was not only carried out by Europeans and Americans, but also by those from the so-called Third World who were studying their own cultures; and neither Western culture nor the non-Western cultures remained the same in the ever-changi ng world (Clifford 1986, Layton 1997). In Writing Culture, the analyses of ethnographic discourses- asking who speaks? who writes? when and where? with or to whom? under what institutional and historical constrains?(Clifford 1986)-is a repercussion of the postcolonial encounter. Another important feature of the 1980s is the increasing flow of so-called postmodernism in academia-grand narrative was abandoned and details of everyday life took their place. Accordingly, singular culture was replaced by the plural one, and cultures were understood as representations and knowledge; and man with a small m took place of Man with variability. More importantly, the process of rethinking cultural representation again called into question the authenticity of representation itself and Writing Culture elegantly captured the main themes in this discussion. Three Main Themes of the Book In general, Writing Culture is an introspection, which attempts to examine anthropology traditions (especially the traditional ethnography) as well as anthropologists themselves. I will explore three main themes in the reflections. 1. Partial truth Knowledge is power,and that one must never reveal all of what one knows. Saramaka folktale, in Price (1983:14) cited in Clifford (1986:7) The most essential and fundamental point in Writing Culture is the questioning of ethnographic authenticity. In the 1920s, ethnography was defined and established not only as a genre of cultural description depending on intensive participant observation (Clifford 1983), but also a main research method internalised as a academic criterion in the field of anthropology (Gao 2006). This new style of ethnography-scientific ethnography, built by Malinowski, investigated the totality of culture with a holistic view and documented different layers of ethnographic reality(Kuper 1996). About 50 years later, the theorizing of ethnographic realism sprung up. In 1977, Paul Rabinow, who is a contributor of Writing Culture, published his book Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco. His provocative descriptions of the fieldwork itself and his own feelings in the field reveal that fieldwork is a process of intersubjective construction of liminal modes of communication (1977:155) which constantly involve s valuation, and the ethnographer is not a objective observer but a real person with self-consciousness and certain cultural background who makes and remakes facts. Unlike the revelations of Malinowskis fieldwork dairy and the Mead-Freeman controversy, anthropologists started to look at themselves consciously and pondered-what is the ethnographic truth. This issue has been argued throughout the book. Take for example Vincent Crapanzanos Hermess Dilemma: The Masking of Subversion in Ethnographic Description (1986); he analyses three ethnographic texts by George Catlin, Wolfgang von Goethe and Clifford Geertz to probe how does the ethnographer make his/her work convincing. The three authors use distinctive figures, namely hypotyposis, external theatrical narrativity and interpretive virtuosity, to convince the readers of the descriptions in their texts. He argues that, as a matter of fact, their rhetoric tools make the described events devoiced from the original settings, and finally, it is the ethnographers authority which covers the subversion up. However, the ethnographers authority-his/her presence, perceptual ability, disinterested perspective, objectivity and sincerity (1986:53), is questionable. Does being there mean witnessing everything? Is the perceptual ability trained in a certain culture adequate and reliable? Is disinter ested perspective or objectivity even possible? If not, how can one reach the whole truth by selected fragmentary information? The underlying institutional system and power relations work through all these issues and enmesh in the anthropological knowledge, not to mention the cultural filtering, the information is not completed at the source. Crapanzanos essay reminds us that the ethnographer, like Hermes who decodes and interprets messages, promised to tell no lies but did not promise to tell the whole truth (1986:76). From this perspective, ethnographic truth no longer pursues the true view of the whole world, as Clifford and Rabinow point out in the book, ethnographic truths are partial, committed and incomplete (Clifford 1986:7) and in bondage to cultural settings. 2. Literary devices All constructed truths are made possible by powerful lies of exclusion and rhetoric. As I have mentioned before, Writing Culture is related to the literary turn of anthropology with the foundation of seeing ethnographies as texts. It is easy to point out that another major theme of the book is the literary devices employed in ethnographies, and in which the rhetoric issue has been mostly discussed. For instance, Renato Rosaldos From the Door of His Tent: The Fieldworker and the Inquisitor (1986), by comparing The Nure written by Evens Pritchard with Montaillou written by French social historian Ladurie, demonstrates how ethnographic rhetoric could assist in building authority and objectivity. Needless to repeat, The Nure is a ethnographic masterpiece, and for Montaillou, it is famous for providing an ethnographic analysis of a French community in fourteenth century by using inquisition record. Rosaldo states that, in the first place, in the introductory section, by frankly acknowledging the inequality between the inquisitor / his subjects, the fieldworker/ the Nuer, the authors both indicate the calm presence of mind(1986:89); then, they style themselves as honest men through complaining about the difficulties in gaining information in uneasy tensions between investigators and informants. After that, they claim their information is gradually collected in particles in order to construct the reliability; meanwhile, distanced normalizing mode of discourse, rhetorical absences[2], correspondences[3], etc. are used to enhance the sense of objectivity. In sum, the rhetorical work in introductory parts of the two books by means of separating the context of colonial domination from the production of ethnographic knowledge (1986:93)establish the authors innocence and the ethnographic authority as well. Furthermore, in both authors, the pastoral mode is invoked. The literary mode of pastoral is, firstly a symbol of the spiritual liberty, secondly a mobile position of speaking, and thirdly a label of courtesy and respect. Rosaldos essay interestingly illustrates that, although the power and knowledge relations have not been completely kicked off, to a great extent, they are concealed by the rhetoric tools. Ethnographic rhetoric has a strong impact on the understandings of the ethnographic texts (Scholte 1987). 3. Writing of Self Continued from the preceding paragraph, the mobility in ethnographers positions is demonstrated cumulatively in other chapters of Writing Culture as well. Fieldwork in Common Places by Mary Louis Pratt (1986) provides an illustration. Her essay focuses on the significant history of the relationship between personal narrative and impersonal description (1986:27) in ethnographies and travel writings. Pratt starts with a controversy that anthropology graduate Florinda Donners work Shabobo: A True Adventure in the Remote and Magical Heart of the South American Jungle is facing accusations of plagiarism, because there are some events in her book which are the same as others. Here, Pratt asks a very inspiring question: as ethnography demands accurate descriptions, for describing the same events at the same place, how could Donners work not resemble others? Pratt argues that the authority of ethnography, in some sense, is based on the unique and original personal experience in the field not the factual accuracy (1986:29) of a certain ethnography. From this perspective, personal narratives cannot be eliminated from ethnography, and it also explains why the subgenre of formal ethnography, such as Malinowskis diaries, has not been killed by science (1986:31), but turned into a prolonged tradition of anthropology. Even in formal ethnographies, personal narrative is an integral part. It marks the relationship among the fieldworker, indigenous people, and the audience. It also serves as a regulator, reconciling the inconsistency between the subjective engagement in fieldwork, and the detachment; the self-effacement in formal ethnographic writing. Moreover, her analysis shows that, even in the time of so-called scientific ethnography, ethnographers were writing from multiple, constantly shifting positions, and self is never a scientist-observer (1986:39). To consider further from this point, we could identity a difference between classical ethnography and experimental ethnography. For Malinowski, and his students Firth and Evens-Prichard, the writing of self is a strategy serving for building the authority of scientific ethnography; however, for Rabinow and his contemporary anthropologists, the consciously self-realization in ethnographic writing successfully opens up a dimension for reflective thinking. The self, thus, is public, and mediates in different cultures. The appearance of the new kind of self writing is very provocative: epistemologically, in view of the production and explanation of the knowledge,it penetrates into the relationship between knowledge of self and knowledge of the Other and how knowledge is hermeneutically represented(Rapport, and Overing 2000); methodologically, it seeks for the diversity of ethnographic writing, more specifically, the expression of the subjectivity, the utilization of rhetoric, or, I would say, the writing style. 4. A summary of the three themes: one centre and two basic relationships Throughout all three themes-ethnographic truth, rhetoric in ethnography, and the writing of self, there is a central point-the construction of ethnographic authority, which cannot be comprehended without reference to the power relations. The power relations derive from the Foucaultian intertwining of knowledge and power in the academic discipline as well as the fluctuant historical and political affiliation. Here, I will not repeat these issues which I have argued in the first part, rather, I would suggest two relationships existing in the main themes of Writing Culture: a) ethnographers and the natives they studied, and b) anthropologists and their readers. Having inherited the tradition of Geertzs interpretive anthropology, Writing Culture highlights the reconstruction of the ethnographer/informant relations (Wang Gao). Indigenous people and their culture are no longer viewed as silent and uniform objects. Ethnographic knowledge, as suggested by Rabinow (1977), is built on a bilateral understanding in certain cultural contexts. At the same time, more importantly, the book pays close attention to the relationship between anthropologists and the readers. Same as the literary outputs, ethnographies shape the relations with the audiences through texts (Xu 2001). Both the completed texts and reading activities are certainly influenced by the literary processes (Clifford 1986). By scanning how ethnographies communicate with their readers, the reflexive essays[4] portray ethnography as a kind of dialogue, and the conversational readership allows, or I could say, encourages the readers to take part in the investigation of ethnographic writing. In addition, the discussions regarding the ethnographers distinguished positions in describing others and expressing Self, permit the readers to obtain the different perspectives which the ethnographers have themselves. As Spencer indicated (1989), the correspondence to multiple positions provided by a master hand is a feature of a good ethnography. Why is it important to tak e the readership of ethnography into consideration? I think it depends largely on the unique and versatile character of this readership. Marcus and Cushman (1982) present six categories of readerships of ethnography. The categories differ in purpose, positions, and some of them may merge with another (the first and second one in particular) or others: (1) the specialist readership, (2) the general anthropological readership, (3) readerships from the other social sciences (4) the student readership, (5) the action oriented readership,(6)the popular readership(1982:51-52). Ethnography, firstly, as a genre and a method as well, interposes itself between humanities (relating to category 1 and 2) and social sciences (relating to category 3); secondly, serves as a puberty rite for professional anthropologists (relating to category 4); thirdly, emerges into social and political decision-making for certain historical and institutional reasons (relating to category 5); and finally, attracts common readers thanks to its literary feature and exotic nature (relating to category 6). It is obvious that the readerships of ethnography are extremely complicated and should be carefully identified. Both ethnographers and readers must be self-conscious (Rapport 2000). Hence, the ethnographer/reader relation issue raised by Writing Culture writers, from this angle, is stimulating from the 1980s till today. The ethnographer/reader relation, together with the ethnographer/informant relation, is located in the power discourse and knowledge discourse. Once again, the two relationships echo the central idea of Writing Culture-the authority and power. In a word, although the three themes I proposed are not a very complete summary of the book, the one centre and two basic relationships they conveyed, in my opinion, have demonstrated the most insight and innovation of Writing Culture. Writing Culture: the Chinese Experience In the preliminary report of the Writing Culture seminar and papers, Clifford and Marcus state that Writing Culture is lacking the feminist point of view as well as Third World or non-European approach (Clifford and Marcus 1985). For the former omission, I agree with Schotle (1987) that, some feminist perspectives is inconspicuously harbored in Pratts essay. However, for sure, there is not a so-called Third World standpoint in Writing Culture, which I think is a significant irony for its analysis of power play in the post-colonial time. In Third World countries, anthropology is in a very different context. Their people and cultures have for a long time been discovered, observed, described, and represented by Westerners. Non-Western anthropologists and their ethnographic works are the symbols of the reconfiguration within the discipline, and most of them naturally locate their fieldwork sites in their own cultures to study their own people. Generally speaking, anthropology[5] of the Third World witnesses a fruitful period in the postwar era, which is also the golden age of experimental ethnography, and to some extent, it could be taken as anthropology at home which employs the self-reflexive approach mentioned in Writing Culture. I will then, taking China as an example, look at some ethnographic cases conducted by Chinese anthropologists relating to Writing Culture. I assume it a good perspective to explore the influential power of Writing Culture and its echoes. The first case is Huang Shumins ethnography The Spiral Road:Change In A Chinese Village Through The Eyes Of A Communist Party Leader(1998). Depending on his one-year fieldwork (first ten chapters) and a revisit (chapter 1112) in a village in Fujian province, China, Huang provides a picture of the huge political and economic change and development in a Chinese village from the founding of Peoples Republic of China to the 1990s as well as the impact on the personal and pubic life of a peasant, who is the a political leader in the community. The political struggles, the hardship of raising a family, and the peasants life wisdom are vividly described through a first-person narrative life history approach. Although his novel-like ethnography is first published in English, Huang is regarded as one of the best Chinese anthropologists for his proficient writing skills and great success in narrating the complexity of historical events in rural China in a lighter tone. The second case is drawn from Li Chunxias PhD dissertation Television and the Life of Yi People in China (2005)[6]. As a Yi[7] anthropologist, her ethnography explores how television profoundly incorporated into the fabric (2005: 5) of local peoples daily life. In the text, Lis fieldwork notes collected during her three-year fieldwork at her own village give expression to her close emotional ties with native people, and deliver her concerns and worries of the ethnic minorities living circumstances in contemporary China. Meanwhile, as a scholar, she keenly captures the metaphorical meaning of modernization, development and prosperity by television. Her analysis penetrates into the relations of Yi people/Han people, and pre-modern/modern. The reflexivity about the periphery/centre relations is a main steam in contemporary anthropology of China. The third case is Zhuang Kongshaos ethnographic research on a hot topic in Chinese culture and society: the family education (Zhuang and Feng 2006). He describes the communications and conflicts between a mother and her seven years old daughter and the relations among school education, family education and social education. Zhuang is a pioneer in anthropology of China, not only because he introduces a new approach called educational anthropology, most importantly, the final production of Zhuangs fieldwork is an ethnographic film named My Wife, My Daughter. It is actually beyond the scope of Writing Culture, because it is no longer about the writing and the text. I adopt this case here, trying to argue that, Writing Culture highlights the diversity of ethnography, and now, facing the radical form of ethnography, can the arguments in Writing Culture on ethnographic texts fit in ethnographic films? What is the same and the difference between the grammars of ethnographic writing and seei ng? Are pictures more worthy than words in constructing ethnographic authority? Can texts and films be combined in ethnographic enterprise? Why and how? The book it self is an open ended text, and constantly simulates new questions for anthropologists in the post Writing Culture era, and that also explains why Writing Culture, after more than twenty years, is still being quoted and debated all over the world. It is true, as Schotle harshly points out (1987), that lots of questions in this book remains unclear and unsettled. However, I appreciate the original questions it raised and the appeal to dialogue. Rethinking Writing Culture Following the reflexive direction, I have three points to make on rethinking the book. Before that, I present a brief schema of the three-stage ethnographic research as follows. There is nothing new, however, my questions are based on it. First, with the text-orientation, has the importance of writing been stressed over that of doing ethnography in the book? The potential risk in the textualism emphasized in Writing Culture is that fieldwork retires from the leading position, it has provided a context for substituting the empirical research. As we can see from the schema, fieldwork is the centre of ethnographic research in time and space, and it is also the foundation of anthropology. In this experimental moment, we should not only look at the outcome of fieldwork, but also reflect upon the limitations and new characteristics in fieldwork processes in this Writing Culture or post Writing Culture era. Second, going back to the very first stage, I would argue, different backgrounds of Western and non-Western ethnographers shape two distinguished patterns of reflexive thinking. First, the Western pattern could be called coming home, after studying the Other, from outside in, anthropologists return to the Self, their reflexive thinking is about their own tradition in their own cultural institutions. Second, the non-Western pattern could be named as being home, they do not have a return perspective, their reflexive thinking is still deeply in relation to the West. I fear, in reflexive anthropology, which is greatly established by Writing Culture, anthropologists in the Third World would be more marginalized through their resistance in this centre-periphery discourse. My final thought is on rhetoric issue, which is still an incomprehensible question to me. If rhetoric is an integral component of ethnographic writing, as Rosaldo (1986) argued, there are using and abusing of descriptive rhetoric, then, the next obvious question is: what is the boundary between use and abuse of rhetoric? It seems to me that, use, is a kind of abuse in itself, if so, how can one control it? Epilogue In the final part of my essay, I would like to do an experiment. I will write about my reading experience instead of the conclusion of the whole passage. I originally read this book in Chinese in my junior year at college. As a literature student, I found the book interesting and inspiring, and it positively influenced me in the choosing of anthropology for graduate study. Later, I reread the book both in English and Chinese, and accessed some related articles written by Writing Culture writers. Surprisingly, I found several articles written in collaboration with Clifford and Marcus. Other than this landmark book, Marcus, together with Cushman, wrote Ethnographies as Texts (1982), which is a harbinger of Writing Culture; and he, later, with Fischer, produced the companion volume of Writing Culture-Anthropology as Cultural Critique (1986). Behind these collaborations, I can imagine the interactions of sparkling thoughts as well as understandings and communications. They are spirits of academic research, and also the anthropological endeavor. References Archetti, E.P. (ed.) (1994) Exploring the written: anthropology and the multiplicity of writing. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press. Asad, T. (1986) The concept of cultural translation in British social anthropology, in Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. (eds.) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press. Asad, T. (2002) From the history of colonial anthropology to the anthropology of Western hegemony, in Vincent, J. (ed.) InThe Anthropology of Politics: A Reader in Ethnography, Theory and Critique, Oxford: Blackwell. Barrett, S.R. (1996) Anthropology: a students guide to theory and method. Toronto. Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. Clifford, J. (1983) On ethnographic authority, Representations, 2, pp. 118-146. JSTOR[Online]. Available at:http://www.jstor.org/stable/2928386 (Accessed: 13 March 2010) Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. (1985) The making of ethnographic texts: a preliminary report, Current Anthropology, 26(2), pp. 267-271. JSTOR[Online].Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2743141 (Accessed: 13 March 2010) Clifford, J. (1986) Introduction: partial truth, in Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. (eds.) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press. Clifford, J. and Marcus (1986) Preface, in Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. (eds.) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press. Crapanzano, V. (1986) Hermess Dilemma: The Masking of Subversion in Ethnographic Description, in Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. (eds.) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press. Fabian, J. (1990) Presence and representation: the Other and anthropological writing, Critical Inquiry, 16(4), pp. 753-772, SAGE[Online].Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343766 (Accessed: 13 December 2009) Gao, BZ. (2006) The three periods in the development of ethnography-translators preface to Writing Culture, Journal of Guangxi University for Nationalities (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition), 28(3), pp 58-63. CNKI[Online]. DOI: cnki:ISSN:1002-3887.0.2006-03-012 (Accessed: 10 November 2009) Gao, BZ. et al.(2007) On Writing Culture, Reading, 2007(4), CNKI[Online]. DOI: CNKI:ISSN:0257-0270.0.2007-04-026 (Accessed: 10 November 2009) Geertz, G. (1975) The interpretation of cultures. London: Hutchinson. Geertz, G. (1983) Local knowledge: further essays in interpretive anthropology. New York: Basic Books. Geertz, G. (1988) Worksandlives: the anthropologist as author. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Harrell, S. (2001) The anthropology of reform and the reform of anthropology: anthropological narratives of recovery and progress in China, Annual Review of Anthropology, 30, pp. 139-161. JSTOR[Online]. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3069212 (Accessed: 03 March 2010) Huang, JB. (2004) The contending of Writing Culture-Post-modern discourse in anthropology and the change in the sudies, Thinking, 30 (4), pp. 39-43. CNKI[Online]. Available at: cnki:ISSN:1001-778X.0.2004-04-009 (Accessed: 10 November 2009) Huang, SM. (1998) The Spiral Road: Change in a Chinese Village Through theEyes of a Communist Party Leader. 2nd edn. Boulder: Westview Press. James, A. Hockey, J. and Dawson, A. (eds.) (1997) After writing culture: epistemology and praxis in contemporary anthropolog

Dr. Seuss The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins Essay -- Dr. Seuss The

Narrative Style and Structure of Dr. Seuss'The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins, told in folktale style, was written by Dr. Seuss in 1938. According to Charity Belle Mays, â€Å"Folktales deal with adventures both plausible and implausible wrapped in the forms of human or animal abilities. They are the simple tales that have truly evil people or animals, and truly good people or animals, and the good always wins out in the end in these stories, giving way to the child's version of fairness.† This story recounts young Bartholomew Cubbin’s misadventures while going to market in town. Bartholomew, a paragon of politeness and obedience, unwittingly finds trouble when he is unable to keep a hat off his head and offends King Derwin. The folktale begins with introductions to Bartholomew and King Derwin, the potential â€Å"hero† and â€Å"villain.† The first several pages emphasize the great contrasts between their lives; Bartholomew is poor and feels insignificant versus the King’s wealth and mighty self-image. With such opposite lifestyles, Seuss must create a...

Economic Security of South Korea Essay

The economy of South Korea is ranked at fifteenth place in the world. In terms of its relation with the United States, South Korea is the seventh largest trading partner. South Korea is well known for its high level of growth in economic field. Before 1960, South Korea was just another poor third world country and hardly known regionally as well as internationally. Its economic booming has elevated South Korea in the eyes of international cooperation especially the Organisation for Cooperation and Development (OECD). Factors Affecting The Economic Security Life span Primary health care has improved tremendously for past decades. Consequently, good quality of life has contributed to longer life span among the population of South Korea citizens. Therefore the median of age of working population has shifted towards older generation.The aging population seems to be of major concern among the economic community because they might affect the economic growth of the nation. In order to sustain rapid economic growth South Korea would require constant support from the young and dynamic generations. Education The economy needs continuous supply of skill labours to sustain growth. Even though the government preach for the need of educated society, the financial allocation is low compare to the needs of parents in educating their children. Hence, the parents end up paying high price for additional classes in school as well as high tuition cost in tertiery education for securing good career. The cost of education is so high that each family restricted the number of children in order to provide excellent education for the child. Even then, the competition is stiff and demands for the need of furthering studies to a higher degree. North and South Relation The relationship between North and South Korea remains an enigma in the sense that their economic status is wide apart where the south enjoys the booming of industry while the north deteriorating. Without the humanitarian aid, the people of North Korea would continue to suffer from food shortage. Having consider the hunger situation of people of North Korea, there is always a military threat towards South Korea. However, South Korea remains hopeful that its volatile neighbour would open its barrier to economic aids thus playing the role of good neighbour. Even though North and South Korea still under conflict, the economic relationship between the two countries remain strong. Being a communist country, China is the largest trading partner for North Korea. However, South Korea has risen to be the second largest partner in terms of economic trade with North Korea. These economic ties is constantly under pressure due to the high possibility of incidences under volatile North Korea foreign policy as well as influences from the communist bloc. For instance, in March 2010, North Korea had torpedoed South Korean warship resulted in 46 soldiers were killed. Despite all the evidence pointing towards her, North Korea deny the responsibility. However, South Korea suspended its trade relationship with North Korea. In another incidence, North Korea fired artillery shell onto Yeonpyeong Island killing two civilians and wounding another 13. These incidences even though had not escalated to full blown war project serious economic security for the Sou th Korea. Globalisation Another factor which affects the economic security of a nation is globalisation. By virtue of globalisation, it increases the interconnectedness of nation and people of the world as the communication and transportation becomes cheaper, faster and readily available. Globalisation reduces the artificial barrier of national border, hence allowing the flow of goods, capitals, services, people and knowledge across the world faster than before. Rapid globalisation allows nation to trade with other nation thereby creating mutual economic interdependence. Economic interdependence is recognised as a positive factor which promote security. South Korea adopted the strategies in using the economic interdependence in order to advance its security goals. Their strategy can be clearly seen in the diplomatic relations towards neighbouring military threat i.e. China. The similar strategy is also adopted towards large powerful nations such as Soviet Union. South Korea’s strategy towards his immediate neighbour North Korea was based partly on the economic interdependence. In the long run, the economic integration might serve as a check and balance on the head of government policies towards each other. Hence the economic integration serve as to avoid any disruption for those links by the use of military threat. (Kahler and Kastner, 2004). Financial Crisis By the same token, globalisation also foster a threat to the security of a nation via economic conflict. The economic crisis of 1990 which struck the markets in Asia shocked the nations and many financial institutions. The globalisation leads to economic openness which in turn causes susceptible economic security since it allows for foreign investors to gain ownership on domestic enterprises. The crisis had caused major implication on South Korea economy as well as a few other countries in South East Asia including Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia. At the beginning of the crisis the assets had deflated down to the new record low, forcing economic panic in South Korea. In order to sustain economic stability, South Korea succumbed to the adjustment programs after bank lending was suddenly stopped. Fortunately, the economy of South Korea return to rapid recovery. In the world of globalisation, information technology becomes the trend of the decade. Hence, South Korea is able to enjoy economic growth because of the high demand in consumer spending for electronic gadgets. The growth will continue to flourish as long as South Korea able to stimulate consumer spending through innovation of technology. The big question is how long can South Korea sustain new innovation to keep the demand pour in and continue to expound economic expansion. On the other hand, globalisation reduces vulnerability through diversity of suppliers and markets. Therefore, economic pressure as well as unilateral sanction becomes less effective because the multi trade relations would able to absorb the pressure. For example, even though China is a major trading partner for South Korea, it cannot act unilaterally on South Korea because of its relation with other super power such as the United States. By the same token, North Korea may pressure South Korea to some extent but would apply cautious because of its relation with China and the United States. Transnational Organised Crimes Another factor that may affect the economic security of South Korea is the infamous transnational organised crime i.e the terrorist attack. The September 11, 2001 shocked the whole world when the World Trade Center building in the United States of America was brought down. The terror caused the world to rethink of the new dimension brought about by the terrorist activities. Even though the tragedy was halfway across the globe, South Korea was also affected because the US was its major trading partner economically. Since the economy of South Korea is widely known for its growth, many have overlooked the threat it creates among the people of South Korea. According to the report, South Korea has one of the highest suicide rates in the world where it has doubled over the last decade. The flourishing economy has increase the standard of living hence putting a lot of strain on household income. Moreover, the success story of economic turnover had masked the financial constraint among small and medium businesses as well as the people who were indebted. The reforms had causes high unemployment as well as unstable employment. In other words, the economy has created insecurity among certain group of population which ended up with suicide notes. Epidemic attack The economy of a country is susceptible to any sporadic of epidemic or pandemic attack of viruses. The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) is a type of Atypical Pneumonia which can kill. It was identified in 2003. Due to its ability to spread quitely within the travelling group, and later created killer pneumonia, the whole world population were discourage to travel. South Korea was not spared of the economic consequences of SARS. Tourism industry was the most affected. Domestically, some public places such as school were closed and shopping mall suffer declined number of customers because of fear of SARS. Community restricted the movement for necessary requirement causing reduction in consumer expenditures and consumer services. However, the effect on economy was minimal compare to other South East Asia countries such as Hong Kong and China. The economic security fluctuates according to the demands of the international arena. When the prices of chips increase and the oil price reduces, South Korea gain positive trade advantages and pocketed tremendous profit because it was the second major supplier of chips to the United States. On the other hand, any sign of price weakening of electronic markets or a hike in oil prices could severely punished the South Korea economy because its export is based on electronics. Summary Undenialbly, economic security is not a new dimension in international relations. It has always been part of the security plan of the governing body of the nation. It is being exploited so as to avoid any security breach of of one government on another government as well as its policy. Each governement would consider economic interdependence with cautious and wariness because it can create both security as well as vulnerability.

Perceptions of Nudity essays

Perceptions of Nudity essays As I began my research for this project, I started to think about my own perceptions of nudity, not only in art, but also in society. I have sat through countless hours of Art History lectures and never really considered the vast meaning behind all of the nudity. More than anything, that fact really disturbed me considering I have been studying art extensively for about two years. I have overlooked the most basic subject matter in portraiture and dismissed nudity as just something prevalent in paintings and On the surface, art is what makes the difference between nude and naked. If I see a painting or photograph in a gallery of an unclothed woman, I look past the nakedness and see the beauty in the piece. On the other hand, I find absolutely no appeal in a Playboy or anything of a pornographic nature. However, on a fundamental level, it could be considered the same thing. Just like if an undressed person decided to take a walk outside, they would be arrested. But, if they painted their body and called it art, they have absolutely no problem. John Bergers chapter in Ways of Seeing was, to say the least, enlightening material. Berger describes men and women as opposites that work together in a virtually one sided relationship. Men get their type of life force from a show of power, or how much they can achieve or provide. Women are pretty much an impression, and anything she thinks or feels is merely expressed in her appearance (Berger 46). Men and women fit together like a sentence. Men are the subject and they do something that causes them to interact with the object, or woman. Even though this partial reality is disheartening, it does hold a substantial amount of truth. In many cases, the man would ask a woman to dinner, or a man is the one to be in charge of an entire nation of people because they are believed to have the natural gift for power...

buy custom Increase of Alcohol-Related Traffic essay

buy custom Increase of Alcohol-Related Traffic essay Research indicates that there has been a rapid increase of alcohol-related traffic together with other unintended injury deaths, both within and out of college especially among individuals aged 18-24 years old. This with no doubt has emphasized the need for colleges and neighboring communities to increase and strengthen measures to curb excessive drinking not only among college students but also among those within the age bracket who are not in college. Many individually oriented counseling programs, comprehensive community interventions, and environmental interventions have been established by schools and other organizations to help ease drinking and associated problems (Morean et al, 235). College organization looks to reform and improve schools drinking behaviors Currently efforts to control drinking among students are ongoing in colleges. College organization, especially student bodies are in the frontline with a view of seeing that colleges serve the purposes they were meant other than being a drinking spree. Students not only in the US but around the world have come together to anti-alcohol and anti-drug abuse organizations to create awareness concerning the issue. For instance as reported by Rodriguez (1), National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML) and Students for Sensible Drug Policys (SSDP) chapter of The Florida State University incorporated their event on 31st March, 2010 in support o the Alcohol Awareness Month. Their main objective as witnessed in their numerous rallies is educating the public on safety of using alcohol and marijuana. Stricter guidelines are being put into place to restrict the consumption of alcohol Colleges and states have come up with alcohol policy with strict rules and bearing severe consequences upon violation by any students. Parents have also been supplied with copies and research indicate that most of students whose parents have read the brochures were less likely to begin drinking if they did not drink before joining college. As part of environmental intervention, all states have laws prohibiting selling of alcohol to individuals younger than 21 years as opposed to 1984 where only 17 states had embraced the law (Ham Hope, 760). Researches indicate that sturdy college alcohol policies decrease binge and underage drinking on campus devoid of resulting to a compensatory increase in the use of marijuana. A study carried out by Centre for Adolescent Substance Abuse Research (CeASAR) among administrators and students o 11 universities and colleges in Massachusetts has clear indication of how a more restrictive enforcement policy for alcohol consumption could reduce the habit. Educational programs Many not-for-profit and student organizations incardination with colleges and universities are offering educational programs dedicated to tackle the issues of drug and alcohol abuse. For instance Alcohol and Drug Abuse Prevention Team (ADAPT) is composed of peer educators who offer educational outreach, promote awareness and act as accessible resources for students. It is found in universities such as the University of California and has helped to reduce the abuse of alcohol and other substances. According to CASE (2) other programs include Drug and Alcohol Prevention Education that has been initiated in most universities and colleges aimed at reducing the consuption of alcohol. The main aim of the program is to ensure drug alcohol-free schools. This is one component of health programs within schools and colleges. One way that has made the program successful is through community-college linkage that ensures parents and the community at large is actively involved in the efforts to reduce alcohol consumption. Support from Organizations A number of organizations have come up in support of a reduction of alcohol consumption within colleges and universities. Education awareness is a key area that all this organizations emphasize while trying to handle the situation (Gale Group, 1560). For example, Safer Alternative For Enjoyable Recreation is a national not-for-profit organization whose main goal is to educate the public of the safety of using alcohol versus alcohol. Many students have benefited from such programs through making an informed decision. What are the consequences of excessive drinking among college students? Excessive alcohol consumption has been known to have a very wide number of consequences. These consequences range from personal, medical and social. These effects or consequences largely depend on both the overall amount o alcohol consumption and largely on the kind of pattern being displayed (LaBrie et, 725). Medical problems Brain damage When alcohol is consumed in excess it causes toxicities in the brain therefore destroying various brain cells. Research indicates that continuous abuse of alcohol by college students has created an environment which is vulnerable to the brain of the student. it has been noted that when the brain of an adolescent who indulge in excessive drinking and that which does not, that which is indulge in excessive drinking had impaired memory especially in the reasoning skills. Blood pressure Excessive alcohol consumption has been predicted as the main cause of high blood pressure within an individual. Binge drinking causes a surge in the blood of an individual as compared to an individual who is consuming small quantities of alcohol over a long period. it has been noted that most young people especially those in colleges are suffering due to increased blood pressure. Strokes Medical practitioners have cautioned that binge drinking increases the risk of acute hemorrhagic up to the gauge of ten. The increased hemorrhagic leads to stoke which largely causes increase in blood pressure therefore creation of spasm within cerebral arteries. If college student are not careful there are likely to die because of constant strokes (CASE, 3). Heart disease It is known that binge drinking diminishes myocardial contraction, which has widely increases chances of heart failure among college student hence high cases of deaths. Studies have indicated that around 30% to 60% cases of atrial fibrillation with students are due to excessive indulgence in the consumption of alcohol most particular among college men. a quarter of sudden cardiac deaths that are been witnessed in various colleges are due to the fact that they have greatly engaged in binge drinking. Female college students be taken advantage of because of their decision to drink in access Female drinkers face a lot of prooblems when they are drunk. They are taken advantage of through violent victimization as indicated by a survey of female college students which established a considerable association between the level of alcohol the women take weekly and their encounters of sexual victimization. Additional studies indicate female college students using alcohol are more likely to be victimized on dating violence as compared to female nondrinking students (LaBrie et al, 721). Many rape cases have been reported among drunk females due to being taken advantage of. They also end up being forced into sexual intercourse without their knowledge. This is one reason of the rising cases of sexually transmitted diseases among the female college students. College students make the wrong decisions Being under the influence of alcohol is one of the major reasons why many college students make wrong decisions. Driving under the influence of alcohol has brought about another serious threat. About 32% of college drinkers have been established to drive under the influence of alcohol. This does not only put them at the risk of injury but also potentially death. A study done in 1999, established that other than 2 million colleges and university in the US driving under the influence of alcohol, more than 3 million individuals rode as passengers under a drinking driver (Gale Group, 1540). Conclusion Alcohol drinking among college students is not only a significant health but also a public concern. Many college students have found themselves being trapped into due this habit due to their inability to resist offer for free alcohol. There are a number of reasons why college students indulge in excessive drinking, first of all peer pressure plays a big role as most students will find it hard to resist practicing what their fellow peers do. Secondly parties held both at home and on campus, with alcohol as one of the drinks greatly encourage this habit. Due to the fact that college students often hold parties absence of their parents, they tend to consume what their parents take and they could not be allowed by their parents. Lastly expectancies is another factor leading to this excessive alcohol drinking in college. Colleges, communities and other organizations are however determined to curb through a number of strategies that go along way in ensuring that colleges are drug and alcohol free. Students also have their own organizations that fight excessive drinking in college. Such organizations include SSDP and NORML. On the other hand, strict guidelines within colleges aid in reducing its consumption. There are a number of educational programs that geared towards eradication of alcohol and drugs in colleges. A good example is ADAPT and Drug and Alcohol Prevention Education. The efforts ease this behavior can not be enough without the help of other numerous not-for-profit organizations that have strived to offer services such as counseling and awareness creation among college students. Finally, excessive drinking of alcohol has many negative consequences. They range from physical, psychological, and medical conditions that can come about as a result of alcoholism. The medical problems include: brain damage, high blood pressure, heart diseases, and strokes. Other than this, female drinkers suffer a lot as they are frequently taken advantage of while drunk. It is very apparent that while drank, students end up making wrong decisions like driving under the influence and having unsafe sex. Buy custom Increase of Alcohol-Related Traffic essay

Steps to Writing a Grant Proposal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Steps to Writing a Grant Proposal - Assignment Example Part of the short-range objectives is to upgrade the existing training facilities of PEACE as well as improve the knowledge and skills of its professional trainers with regards to managing traumatic situations the victims and families of the victims are currently going through whereas the long-term objective is to expand the existing infrastructure of PEACE in order to support the increasing number of victims who will be needing the social support of the said organization. To improve the quality of PEACE’s social services, a budget of one million US dollars (US$1,000,000.00) is needed wherein one-eighth (1/8) of the total expected grant will be used to financially support the further education and trainings of its professional trainers and upgrade the existing training facilities such as the improvements in training area and the purchase of new computers, projectors, and LCDs. The remaining three-eighth (3/8) of the total grant will be used in expanding the existing infrastructure of PEACE. Over the past five years, the city of Portland is experiencing an increase in domestic and youth violence, spousal and child abuse, assault, and incidents of road rage. To provide assistance to the victims of violence, the mission of PEACE Domestic Violence Agency is to reduce victim trauma, empower survivors, and promote recovery to the victims of sexual assault and domestic violence. Social problems related to domestic violence can be solved by increasing the number of available service provision, education, and social awareness. By extending free educational training services, wellness support group, and shelter to the victims of domestic violence, PEACE will not only be able to promote the well-being of young men, women, and children whose lives have been affected by domestic violence but also improve the quality of life of families whose member or members are in prison. Educating the public on how to handle and protect themselves from becoming a victim

African studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 5

African studies - Essay Example Additionally, the trade also led to the adoption of Islam religion. The encounter of West Africans with the Arabs helped Northern Africa to become a part of the Islamic influence. The Trans-Saharan region had been prepared for acceptance Islam faith in 7th century. Islam was one of the influential factors in the civilization of West Africa where Europeans had refused to penetrate due to the desert conditions. The cultural transformation entailed value for human life, novelty, and social prestige. Powerful kingdoms arose in West Africa due to Trans-Saharan trade. Soninke of Ghana and Mandinka in Mali participated in the trade and accumulated enormous wealth (Shillington 88). Wealth gave the kingdoms the power to maintain rule and influence in the trade. However, the region was not safe and secure due to the gold and ivory trade. Kingdoms would attack each other when traversing the desert. Robbers attacked and hijacked caravans and charioteers. Additionally, kingdoms required slaves and led to a reduction of people. People fled and moved southwards to escape the mistreatment. The spread of Islam brought tension in Western Africa as traditionalist communities resisted the influence of the religion and created a balance. The interactions between Arabs in North Africa and the trading parties from Western Sudan led to the development of infrastructures such as trade roots, monuments, and schools. According to Shillington, the development of fundamental trade centers such as Taghaza, Fezzan, Gao, Tadmeka, Wakata, and Kumbi-Saleh brought commercial and administrative organs that were responsible for trade of goods (p. 92). Communities gained gold, ivory and slaves to boost their economic power in the trade. Local leaders use forced labor to collect goods and make profits from the inferior trading communities. The economic benefits of Trans-Saharan trade were felt in Mali, Songhay and Bornu due to participation in

Differences Between Virtual and Concrete Manipulatives Essay

Differences Between Virtual and Concrete Manipulatives - Essay Example 117). Physical or real-world features do not define a concrete experience in a mathematical context; it is by how significant the connection is to the mathematical ideas and situations. For example, a student might create the meaning of the concept "four" by building a representation of the number and connecting it with either real or pictured blocks. Virtual manipulatives, also called computer manipulatives, appear to offer interactive environments where students can manipulate computer objects to create and solve problems. Furthermore, perhaps because they are receiving instant feedback about their actions, students then form connections between mathematical concepts and operations. However, whether using physical or virtual manipulatives, it is necessary to connect the use of a specific manipulative to the mathematical concepts or procedures that are being studied (p. 119). Some researchers have observed that some of the constraints inherent to physical manipulatives do not bind v irtual manipulatives. Use of models and/or manipulatives gives assessment of mathematical learning a cohesive connection to mathematical instruction (Kelly, 2006). Kelly’s study examines the relationship between mathematical assessment and the use of manipulatives. ... The use of such assessments in combination with the use of manipulatives should build strong student investment in the teaching-learning process while developing deeper mathematical learning. Physical Manipulatives Relative to the teaching and learning of mathematics, physical, or concrete, manipulatives are three-dimensional objects used to help students bridge their understanding of the concrete environment with the symbolic representations of mathematics (Clements, 1999; Hynes, 1986; Moyer, 2001; Terry, 1996). There has been historical documentation of the use of manipulatives such as the abacus, counting sticks, and of course fingers, prior to the Roman Empire (Fuys & Tischler, 1979). Examples of teacher-made manipulatives include those that use materials such as beans, buttons, popsicle-sticks, and straws (Fuys & Tischler). Today’s teachers have access to a wide variety of commercially available manipulatives designed to aid in the teaching of most elementary mathematical concepts. Examples include Algebra tiles, attribute blocks, Base-10 materials, color tiles, Cuisenaire rods, fraction strips, geoboards, geometric solids, pattern blocks and Unifix cubes. The appearance of commercially made manipulatives in the United States increased during the 1960s after the work of Zolten Dienes and Jerome Bruner was published (Thompson & Lambdin, 1994). Many educators continue to view manipulatives as teaching tools that involve physical objects that teachers use to engage their students in practical and hands-on learning of mathematics. These manipulatives continue to be instrumental to introduce, practice, or remediate mathematical concepts and procedures. Concrete manipulatives come in a variety of physical forms, ranging from grains of rice to

Questions asked from the managers Essay Example for Free

Questions asked from the managers Essay The following questions are those asked from the managers of the IT corporations. Each and everyone of them were also asked to give a brief company profile before the questions about blogging were asked. Company Profile 1. Name of Company: 2. Year Company Started: 3. Brief History of Company 4. Nature of Company’s work 5. Number of company employees: 6. Target market of the company: Questions on Corporate Blog 1. What does the company offer? a. Services – (what services and for whom? ) b. Products – (what products and for whom? ) 2. Since when did your company start engaging in corporate blog? 3. How much does your company spend for the operation of your corporate blog? 4. What was the effect of corporate blog to your corporation 5. Is blogging effective in making your customers understand more about your company? 6. Does blogging make understanding your services easier? 7. Communication with Customers a. Did you receive more client feedback when you engaged in corporate blog? b. Are your customers more informed about your products when you engaged in corporate blog? 8. Communication with Employees a. How many of your employees engage in blogging? b. What are your rules regarding employees blogging? 9. Did you integrate your missions, visions, and goals into corporate blogging? 10. Did you consider the risks involved when your corporation or company started adopting corporate blog? If yes, why does your company still continue engaging in corporate blog? 11. Are the solutions which your company pursued, effective in reducing the risks of corporate blog? If not, what other solutions do you think should be done? 12. What have been the advantages of corporate blog for your company? 13. What have been the perceived disadvantages of corporate blog for your company? 14. What were the problems faced in engaging corporate blog? 15. Is corporate blogging better than written media into bringing your services closer to the customers? 4. 3 Analyzing obtained data The data obtained from the interviews have been tabulated and themes and trends from such qualitative data would then be identified, and analyses would then be formulated. The data obtained from the questionnaires will be analyzed using the Likert scale. The primary tool used to examine Likert Scale is by the use of graphical analysis. Since the frequency distribution can visually be seen in the graph, it is easier to explain the results. The trend represents certain patterns that match with the frequency distribution. The Likert scale is a unidimensional scaling method. Unidimensional concepts are generally easier to understand. Its either something has more of it or less (Trochim 2006, http://www. socialresearchmethods. net/kb/scalgen. php ). Since the aim of the research is to identify whether the receptiveness of corporate blog to employees, executives and the corporation as a whole is better or worse, then a unidimensional scaling would be a good measurement for the research. 4. 4 Other Resources Secondary resources are also critically used in this project, which mainly include news, journal articles and books. Internet and Email will be as the communication and research tools for this project. The collected data will be coded and analyzed under the theoretical framework and prior reviewed literature. According to Coffey and Atkinson (1996), coding is the process of condensing the bulk of data sets into analyzable units. Coding and analyzing data based theoretical concepts has the important role of enabling rigours review on our data. Therefore, the collected data will be coded and analysed under the theoretical framework and prior reviewed literature. 5 Discussion 5. 1 Research expectation and risk The author will discuss the outputs from the case study, interviews and questionnaires. Each case study will be discussed here in full detail. Blog contents from the corporate blogs of each company will be evaluated and discussed. The research study is able to seek: why did the company considered blogging? What are the advantages and disadvantages from setting up a corporate blog? The expectation data obtained from the questionnaires will also be presented and discussed. Results obtained through the Likert scale will be interpreted. Results are also related to previous researches and theoretical issues discussed in the introduction and literature review. The author will give a brief introduction to the uses of blogs, corporate blogs, its advantages and limitations, and the issues surrounding corporate blogs, which includes privacy or information leakage of the corporation because of the freedom, entailed in corporate blogging. To which we can now generate our prediction of corporate blogging with the analysis of its strategic management implementation (rules and regulations), the perception of employees and employers, and our own analysis as to how corporate blogging can elevate the communication process among a business organization. The author expects challenging the blogging system as an entity of information and as a communication medium to delimit its disadvantages and provide better means of communication for the business sector. Assuming that results are as predicted, we can now generalize the discussion. Note, however, that different companies have different cultures and strategies in corporate blogging; thus different results would be yield, and themes would have to be established in order for data to be qualitatively analyzed. Having the prediction of the future of corporate blogging may be a challenging step but I think it is feasible in this case since we can generate information regarding how the corporate blogging system can improve and be able to overcome the challenges of advanced technology. 5. 2 The limitations of the study On major limitation of the study is that only IT companies are to be considered in data gathering. It is possible that other companies may have a different culture and perception on corporate blogging. Future research may focus on determining the perceptions of companies other than IT and compare its results with the results obtained from this study. Also, the study only analyzed the perceptions of bloggers on corporate blogging. Studies on the perception of nonbloggers (or those who have blogs but do not post regularly) may be carried out to give a more generalized rate of acceptance of blogging as a new kind of innovation. There is also a restraint in Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovation Theory. It may be the most widely used theory in both individual and organizational IT adoption researches but none of the five predictors (relative advantage, compatibility with existing values and practices, simplicity and ease of use, trialability and observable results) made Jeyaraj et al. ’s (2006) list of best predictors for the aggregate IT adoption construct. Another limitation of this research is that blogging can result in legal problems because of the lack of blogging management. The integrity rules for protection and management are expected to established immediately.

Negative Priming Experiment

Negative Priming Experiment Negative Priming: The effect of inhibitory mechanisms on the probe of a pair of trials in a Stroop style ink identification task. Abstract The investigation was based on the work of Dalrymple-Alford and Budayr (1966), who investigated the phenomenon of negative priming in relation to the Stroop task. In the original experiment by Dalrymple-Alford and Budayr (1966), it was discovered that if in a trial, the ink colour was the same as the word on the previous trial; subjects were slower to respond. This effect has been termed negative priming. The aim of this experiment was to partly replicate the work of Dalrymple-Alford and Budayr (1966), and to further investigate the phenomena of negative priming. The experimenter hypothesised that in an ink colour identification task, when the target in the probe trial matched the distractor in the prime, then reaction times would be significantly slower in comparison to conditions where the prime and probe were unrelated. To test the hypothesis, the researcher created four conditions; congruent, neutral, ignored repetition and attended repetition. The condition of interest was ignor ed repetition. Participants reaction times were recorded for the primes and probes of each condition. The effect of condition was shown to be significant using a two way repeated measures ANOVA [F(3,57) = 13.09; p = 0.001]. The significance of the results means the hypothesis was accepted, and it was concluded that negative priming is prominent in conditions where the target in the prime becomes the distractor in the probe, supporting the work of Dalrymple-Alford and Budayr (1966). Introduction Attention is a vital and complex function of cognition. One of the earliest definitions of attention came from James (1890), who defined it as â€Å"the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thoughtIt implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with other.† This early definition from James (1890) highlighted the issue of the selective nature of attention. This feature of attention is essential for organisms to be able to be successful in a search for a target; to select and process only the information they need. It is therefore vital that during this search there are certain mechanisms that suppress distracting information and prevent the return of attention to previously attended objects or events. The mechanism responsible for this important feature is inhibition- the suppression of unwanted or distracting information to ensure movement of attention to novel l ocations. The role of inhibition has been theorised through a variety of concepts. One such concept is Inhibition of Return (IOR). IOR was proposed as an inhibitory mechanism, which reduces the prominence of the previously inspected item in a scene. IOR was first observed by Posner and Cohen (1984) in their simple cuing experiment and refers to the relative suppression of stimuli (object and events) that had recently been the focus of attention. This inhibition of return effect is thought to make visual search more efficient as it ensures that previously examined objects are not searched again, thus facilitating the search for the target (Wright Richard, 1996). Further evidence of inhibitory mechanisms in attention comes from the visual marking mechanism; proposed by Watson and Humphreys (1997) as a goal-directed process that enhances visual search through the inhibition of ‘old objects. When new objects are added to a visual scene, they take priority during search, because old objects are ‘marked for non search. Also, the discovery of the ‘attentional blink provides some clear evidence that in tasks using Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP), a method of displaying information very briefly in sequential order, perception of a target presented 200-500ms after the first target is impaired (Raymond, 1992). This attentional blink occurs because of interference caused by the presentation of stimuli after the target but before the target-identification process is complete, causing the temporary suppression of inhibitory mechanisms. In other words, inhibition of distracting stimuli does not occur, causing a failure in identif ication. Mechanisms such as IOR and visual marking are evidence for inhibitory mechanisms in selective attention, and the attentional blink demonstrates just how important these mechanisms are. This process of inhibition however, is not without consequences. It has been discovered that after a stimulus has been ‘ignored, processing of that ignored stimulus shortly afterwards is impaired. This effect has been termed negative priming (Tipper, 1985). In recent years, numerous studies have looked at negative priming as evidence of an inhibitory component within selective attention. An important study which was vital in the discovery of negative priming is the Stroop task (Stroop, 1935). The standard Stroop colour-word test involved participants being required to name the ink colour of a printed word. When the word was incongruent with the colour ink- such as the word ‘red written in green ink- then interference occurred, resulting in slower response times and more errors in comparison to control conditions. In congruent conditions, where the colour written matched the colour of ink it was written in, reaction times were faster. The interference observed in this study can be attributed to automaticity as reading is an automatic process. According to Shiffrin and Schneiders (1977) model of automaticity, automatic processing makes no demands on attentional resources, has no capacity limitations, and is unavoidable. Automatic processing thus provides a liable explanation of why the Stroop effect occurs, as when seeing a word we unavoidably read it, causing a delay in the process of naming the ink colour of the word. Whilst investigating the effect of stimulus sequencing on Stroop interference, Dalrymple-Alford and Budayr (1966), came across what is now known as negative priming. What they found was that there was a greater delay and an increased error rate when an item appeared in the colour ink which was required to be ignored in the previous stimulus. Similar findings come from Tipper (1985), who presented participants with overlapping line drawings, in either red or green. The participants were required to identify only the red items in each set of stimuli. When the ignored drawing (green) became the required response (red) in the next set of trials, response times slowed. This suggests it is harder to identify and selectively attend to what was previously rejected. A key question in regards to selective attention and negative priming is at which point of sensory processing can incoming signals first be selected or rejected by attention- does this happen early in the process or late? Early selection models, such as Broadbents (1958) filter theory, argue that as sensory processes are limited, they require attention to initially select the stimuli that are required for further processing and discarded irrelevant stimuli. Therefore, attentional selection should occur early; implying a ‘bottleneck in the brain protecting processing systems from being overloaded by irrelevant information. The late selection models (Deutsch Deutsch 1936) however, claim that all stimuli, both attended and unattended, can be processed automatically in parallel- thus without a need for early selection. Therefore, selection should occur late, after the semantic analysis of the stimuli. Negative priming has generally been interpreted as evidence for late selection as the phenomenon shows that distracting/ irrelevant stimuli are in fact processed at the same time as the attended stimuli, hence the interference that occurs. Negative Priming is clearly a well studied phenomenon, and there have been numerous variations on the original experiment by Dalrymple Alford and Budayr (1966). The explanations behind the effect have generally focused on the effect being caused by increased interference due to the suppression of the word during naming of the ink colour- resulting in temporary unavailability of that response (MacLeod MacDonald, 2000). The majority of evidence supports the idea that if a probe in a pair of stimuli has the same target as the prime, then reaction times will be slowed for that probe; suggesting that internal representations of the ignored object may become associated with inhibition during selection. Therefore this experiment hypothesises that, in concordance with the previous evidence, in an ink colour identification task, the probe in the ignored repetition condition will take significantly longer to identify than the prime, in comparison to other conditions. Method Design The design was repeated measures with 2 within factors; condition with 4 levels (Congruent, Neutral, Ignored Repetition and Attended Repetition) and pairing with 2 levels (prime and probe). The experiment was a part replication of the work of Dalrymple-Alford and Budayr (1966), as an investigation into negative priming. The experiment consisted of 4 conditions. Condition 1 was ‘Congruent, where the target and distractor matched in both prime and probe, for example blue in blue ink followed by red in red ink. Condition 2 was ‘Neutral, where the normal Stroop style format was used and the prime and probe bore no intentional resemblance to each other; for example blue in red ink followed by yellow in green ink. Condition 3 was ‘Ignored repetition. This condition was where negative priming was presumed to take place, as the distractor in the prime became the target in the probe, for example, blue in yellow ink followed by red in blue ink. The final condition, condition 4, was ‘Attended repetition, where the target was repeated in the probe, for example blue in red ink followed by green in red ink. For each condition, there were 30 pairs of trials (120 pairs in total, 240 individual trials). Within each pair was a prime (1) and a probe (2) The trials were split into two identical blocks. To control for order effects, the conditions were randomised such that no condition/ pair was presented in succession. This resulted in 15 pairs of each condition per block. A total of 240 responses (reaction times, in milliseconds) were collected for each participant. Participants The sample selected was a group of 20 undergraduate students at the University of Lincoln, with a mean age of 21.35 years, and a standard deviation of 6.51. This target population was relevant because it was the most easily accessible group of people of similar age and status. Participants were selected by opportunity sampling. This method was used because it is a quick, practical and efficient way of generating data through using participants available and willing at the time of the experiment. Materials In order to carry out the experiment certain materials were necessary. The researcher used a Dell Optiplex 745 computer with a monitor size 15inches, 150HP. Also used was a button box (Credus Corporations) and voice recorder (TTC Quality Electronics). The 6 colours used were randomly selected from a bag of various coloured cards. The chosen colours were then created from a standard Microsoft windows palette. These were; Blue (red: 0, green: 0, blue: 225), Green (red: 0, green: 225, blue: 0), Red (red: 225, green: 0, blue: 0), Yellow (red: 255, green: 255, blue: 0), Pink (red: 225, green: 0, blue: 225), Black (red: 0, green: 0, blue: 0). All colour words were presented in Aerial font, size 58, bold. In addition to the colour words presented, there was also a welcome message (Arial font, size 48, bold, in Black ink), and a fixation cross (Arial font, size 58, bold, in Black ink). Further necessary materials included a checklist for Type I and Type II errors. Procedure The participants were approached and asked if they would like to take part in the experiment. If they agreed they were taken to a quiet area chosen for the experiment to take part in. Then the researcher explained to the participant what they would need to do, and gave them a set of standardised instructions (appendix 1). The participants were then asked to read and sign the consent form (appendix 2) if they agreed to take part. Following this, the participants were seated in front of the computer screen and shown how to hold the microphone. They were then told there would be an initial practice run of the experiment, and asked to begin when they were ready. Following the practice run, the participant was once again asked if they were happy to continue with the experiment. If they agreed, they were instructed to begin when they were ready. During the experiment, two researchers were present at all times. The researchers each had a list of the order of trials and correct responses, as they were pseudo-randomised. One researcher marked type I errors on one sheet, and the other marked type II errors on another. Block one consisted of a series of 60 trials followed by a 30second break before the remaining 60 trials in that block. The experiment began with a welcome message which instructed the participant to press the left key on the button box when they were ready to start. After they had pressed this, a fixation cross was presented on the screen for 1500ms, followed by a blank which lasted 1000ms. Each trial was presented for 1500ms, trials were presented in pairs according to condition. Between each pair was a blank of 1000ms. After the first block of trials, the experiment closed, and one researcher started block two, which was identical to block one. Once again any and all errors were recorded. After the completion of this second final block, the experiment automatically closed. The participant was then thanked for their cooperation and given a debrief form to read (appendix 3) they were also encouraged to ask any questions, and assured that their results would remain private and anonymous. Ethical Considerations A number of ethical issues were identified in the experiment in line with British Psychology Society (BPS) guidelines. A consent form was given to participants which explained what the experiment was researching into, what they had to do during the testing and it also requested the participants age and gender. The form explained that any participant with aversion to flashing lights or rapidly presented stimuli should not continue on with the experiment, and asked participants to report if they had any back problems. Participants also had the right to withdraw themselves and their results from the experiment at any time, and this was stated in both the consent form (appendix 2) and debrief (appendix 3). After the participants had taken part in the experiment, the experimenter explained what they were investigating and the implications to the research, and answered any questions asked. It was the experimenters responsibility to make sure that participants left in the same psychological state that they started the experiment with. Participants were informed that their identity would be kept anonymous and that their results would be treated in confidence and destroyed after the experiment. To ensure protection of participants, no physical or mental harm came to them while taking part in the experiment as the consent form included a brief health check to eliminate those individuals who may be at slight risk from participating in the experiment. The room was an empty, calm setting, in order to minimise any stress to the participant, and to avoid any eye strain, a break was given, splitting the trials into two blocks. No deception took place in this experiment. An ethical approval form was completed by researchers prior to the experiment (appendix 4). Results The results were recorded and analysed for each condition in the experiment- 1 (Congruent), 2 (Neutral), 3 (Ignored Repetition) and 4 (Attended Repetition). Any errors, either cognitive (type I), or human/computer (type II), were excluded from the data. Both prime and probe trails were removed regardless of where the error occurred. Error analysis will be discussed later. A table to show a comparison of the mean and standard deviation of the difference between reaction times of prime and probe per condition Condition Mean Standard Deviation 1 (Congruent) 21.250 98.63002 2 (Neutral) 12.950 111.55149 3 (Ignored Rep) -69.350 66.52287 4 (Attended Rep) 35.450 94.73424 A table to show a comparison of mean standard deviation for reaction times of prime and probe per condition Condition Mean Standard Deviation 1 (Congruent ) Prime 1 (Congruent ) Probe 744.3 723.0 156.4 122.3 2 (Neutral) Prime 2 (Neutral) Probe 822.9 809.9 170.7 129.0 3 (Ignored Rep) Prime 3 (Ignored Rep) Probe 782.7 852.0 138.6 132.7 4 (Attended Rep) Prime 4 (Attended Rep) Probe 775.9 740.5 142.1 140.4 See appendix 5 for full SPSS data. The mean difference between prime and probe for condition 3 (Ignored Repetition) was -69.35, which was significantly greater than for any of the other conditions (21.25 for Congruent; 12.95 for Neutral, and 35.45 for Attended Repetition). It also shows that the condition with the smallest difference in reaction time between prime and probe was condition 2 (Neutral). 2 shows that for condition 3 (Ignored repetition) the mean reaction time for the prime (782.7) was smaller than the mean reaction time for the probe (852.0). This stands out when compared to all of the other conditions, where the mean reaction time for the prime was greater than for the probe. This suggests that for conditions 1 (Congruent), 2 (Neutral) and 4 (Attended Rep), the probe generated a quicker response than the prime, yet for condition 3 this effect was reversed and the probe generated a slower response. To further analyse the data, a Two-way Repeated Measures ANOVA was carried out to analyse the reaction times and look at any effect between conditions. The results of the ANOVA shows that the main effect of Condition was significant [F(3,57) = 13.09; p = 0.001]. The following bar chart ( 3) presents a visual representation of this significance and shows the variation between conditions: The second ANOVA was concerned with the difference in reaction times between prime and probe. The ANOVA showed that the main effect of Pair is not significant [F(1,19) = 0.001; p = 0.996], suggesting that the pairing did not significantly affect reaction times. Although the effect was not found to be significant, the plot below ( 4) clearly shows that condition 3 (Ignored Repetition) was the only condition where response time was slower in the probe than in the prime: Thirdly, the interaction effect between Condition and Pair was analysed. This was found to be significant [F(3,57) = 6.6; p = 0.001]. As the interaction effect between ‘Pair and ‘Condition was significant, a post-hoc Bonferroni was carried out to find where the significances lay. The Bonferroni showed significant differences between the following conditions; (1) Congruent and (2) Neutral (p= 0.001) (1) Congruent and (3) Ignored Repetition (p= 0.002) (2) Neutral and (4) Attended Repetition (p= 0.001) (3) Ignored Repetition and (4) Attended Repetition (p= 0.014) Error analysis Errors were recorded per type I and II for each condition. The table below ( 5) shows the number of errors of each type that occurred in each condition. A table of sums of errors per condition and error type Condition Error Type I Error Type II 1 (Congruent) 11 26 2 (Neutral) 21 33 3 (Ignored Rep) 35 35 4 (Attended Rep) 26 24 A table to show the mean rank of errors per condition Condition Mean Rank 1 (Congruent) 2.15 2 (Neutral) 2.70 3 (Ignored Rep) 2.93 4 (Attended Rep) 2.23 The condition with the lowest number of errors was condition 1 (Congruent), with a mean of 2.15. The condition with the highest number of errors condition 3 (Ignored Repetition), with a mean of 2.93. A Friedmans test was used to analyse the errors and look for any significances in their distribution. Application of Friedmans test showed that there were no significances in the distribution of errors over the four conditions; X2=5.71; df = 3; p = 0.127. Discussion The results obtained show that the mean difference between prime and probe for condition 3 (Ignored repetition) was -69.35, which was notably greater than for any of the other conditions (21.25, 12.95 and 35.45). This suggests that something different is happening in this condition, as the difference is not only a lot greater but also in the opposite direction. The plot ( 4) shows a visual representation of this effect. From this it is possible to infer that in the Ignored repetition condition, negative priming did occur as the probe took longer to respond to than the prime in comparison with all other conditions. After carrying out a two way repeated measures ANOVA, it becomes clear that this is in fact the case. The results of the ANOVA showed that the main effect of Condition was significant [F(3,57) = 13.09; p = 0.001], and that the interaction effect between Condition and Pair was also significant [F(3,57) = 6.6; p = 0.001]. The ANOVA concerning the difference in reaction times between prime and probe showed that the main effect of Pair was not significant [F(1,19) = 0.001; p = 0.996]. Analysis of errors found them not to be significant; however the mean ranks showed that there were more errors in the ignored repetition condition (Mean rank 2.93). This is consistent with previous research; that in the ignored repetition condition, more interference occurs causing slower response times and more mistakes to be made. These findings mean that the hypothesis can be accepted: in an ink colour identification task, when the target in the probe trial matches the distractor in the prime, then reaction times will be significantly slower in comparison to conditions where the prime and probe are unrelated. Thus the experiment supports and confirms the previous research such as that of Dalrymple-Alford and Budayr (1966). The negative priming effect observed in this experiment can be explained as an inhibitory mechanism of attention. The differences in reaction times between conditions infer that for condition 3 (Ignored Repetition), at the point of the probe something different happened in than in the other conditions. In line with previous research, we can assume that due to the suppression of the word in the prime trial, when that colour word then becomes the ink colour in the probe trial, then there is a problem with retrieving that response as it had just been suppressed. One limitation of this experiment was the methodology. The design involved a set of two blocks in a Super Lab program, each containing 15 pairs of each condition, in a randomised order. Between each pair of trials was a blank screen presented for 1000msc. This quick succession of pairs means it may not have been obvious for the participants that the stimuli were in fact presented in pairs. This therefore may be able to explain why the probe condition 1 (Congruent) was fastest; when it was expected that condition 4 (Attended Repetition) would be. To overcome this limitation, future experiments could use separate blocks for each condition- thus making it more obvious that the trials were in certain pairs. In addition to the above adjustment, it would also be interesting to consider individual differences in a future extension of this experiment. There has been numerous past studies that suggest for certain individuals, the effect of negative priming is actually less robust. An example of this is Schizophrenics, who seem less able at inhibition- hence are less susceptible to negative priming (Beech et al 1989). A future investigation could build on the evidence of individual differences playing an important role in the effect of negative priming, and possibly look into more general differences such as cultural background or occupation. For example, it would be interesting to look for any differences in the effect of negative priming between people in creative careers- such as artists, compared with those in writing careers such as journalists. Would someone who is used to looking at words be more prone to negative priming than someone who would be more interested in the colour and form of the word? To summarise, this experiment has shown clear negative priming, consistent with the majority of existing studies, thus supporting the notion of inhibitory processes in attention. References Beech, A., Powell, T., McWilliam, J., Claridge, G. (1989). 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